“Light is to the production what music
is to the score: the expressive element in opposition to the literal signs;
and, like music, light can express only what belongs to ‘the inner essence of
all vision’.”[1]
While Adolphe Appia, in the above
quote, understands the true nature and effectiveness of lighting within
theatre, for many, the history of lighting and lighting effects is an
afterthought compared to the other apparatus. Light is a part of our daily
lives, “a phenomenon so familiar we cease to think about it”[2].
We do not see light; we see are the effects of light as they land on material
surfaces. Light is taken for granted. Within the history of cinema, light
suffers a similar fate. Historians and theorists discuss and research the
evolution of the camera, the screen, the photographic film, forgetting that
ultimately, “cinema is a medium of light. The cinema does not exist without the
beam of electrical light that passes through the celluloid strip to throw an
image onto a screen before a viewer.”[3]
Light is the beginning of cinema and its function and the development of
processes to channel and alter light form the basis of both the apparatus and
the dispositif of cinema. Light reacts with the silver halide grains on the
film to create a negative and it is light that is shone through the differing
incarnations of projectors onto the various screens throughout history. There
has been a “critical neglect of the role of light and lighting in cinema (…) in
spite of the persistent experimentation in these areas by filmmakers throughout
the twentieth century”[4].
When we discuss colour in cinema, light is similarly neglected. We discuss the
processes of capturing the colour on film, and the effects of this colour on
the audience. What we are missing is “the most subtle aspect”[5] of
colour; the colour of light itself. It is thus the function of this paper to
discuss the role and evolution of the use of this most subtle aspect of colour
within cinema.
Colour’s relationship to cinema did
not begin with the tinting and toning of black and white film, nor did it begin
with the hand painted photographs. So exactly when did it begin? As Higgins
rightly states “colour has repeatedly proved one of the most challenging
elements of art to theorists and historians. It throws up obstacles to
description and to the uncovering of a system of logic or design”[6].
Colour comes from light, thus I would argue that coloured light is an integral
part of the archaeology of cinema. From the magic lanterns and phantasmagorias
to the tinting and toning processes, coloured light has ultimately played a
significant role. Even in the abstract animation of Léopold Survage’s 1914
exhibition Le Rythme Coloré there
are links to coloured light. As Guillaume Apollinaire reviews, the animation
draws its origins from “fireworks, fountains, electric signs, and those fairy-tale
palaces at every amusement part accustom the eyes to enjoy the kaleidoscopic
changes in hue”[7]; all
aspects that use coloured light as part of their spectacle. But to simply state
that colour is everywhere because of light would be to do an injustice to the
evocative and important role of coloured light. Thus I will discuss the
development of the manipulation of coloured light within cinema. In order to
provide an orderly structure to my argument, I will restrict myself to the
discussion of coloured light as used for expressive purposes. This will be done
for a number of reasons. Firstly let me return to the quote by Appia, who
compared the role of lighting to the role of music in theatre; the expressive
element. Within cinema there are also two specific types of sound; diegetic and
non-diegetic sound. Diegetic sounds are the realistic noises that occur within
the world of the story, while the non-diegetic soundtrack and music are the
expressive element; it gives us emotional cues and heightens the events
occurring on the screen. Colour has a similar disparity. Tom Gunning, in his
article “Colorful Metaphors: The Attraction of Colour in Early Silent Cinema”
describes the two roles of colour in early cinema, and two ideals that led to
the development of colour processes for cinema. On the one hand you have a move
for realism, as championed by Andre Bazin in his essay “The Total Myth of
Cinema”. The role of colour in this paradigm is simply to recreate a realistic
representation; to depict things as they truly are. On the other hand you have
a more expressive use of colour; as Gunning states “a purely sensuous presence,
an element which can even indicate a divergence from reality”[8].
It is this second role of colour in cinema that I will concentrate on in relation
to the use of coloured lighting. Yumibe[9] asserts
that historical studies of colour photography and colour film have placed an
emphasis on the natural colour while the added or applied colour photography
has received little or no attention. I will attempt, in some small way, to
rectify this.
The origin of colour cinema is rather
speculative, with much debate still raging as to where and when it first began.
Edward Branigan[10]
suggests that “there is such a remarkable diversity that it is not immediately
clear with what industry to begin a study of color[11],
or how far to go back”. For the purpose of discussing the evolution of colour
light effects in cinema, I will begin my analysis in early theatre, where many
of the conventions and apparatus began. From ancient Greek theatre to the
developments of the Renaissance and Victorian ages, I will attempt to track the
development of coloured light as used to alter atmosphere and mood. One could
easily segue into the developments of colour lighting as used in Féreés
chromo-therapy or in interior design. While valid in the overall archaeology of
cinema, an adequate discussion of these aspects would require a longer paper
and are thus excluded from this thesis. There are also a number of occasions in
the history of the cinema where both realism and expressive colour interpolate.
In these cases I will focus only on the expressive colour. For example, the
tinting and toning processes of early cinema are cornerstones in the
development of colour cinema and realism. However I argue that they play an
equally significant role in evolution of expressive lighting in cinema. In
early cinema, as opposed to later developments in colour film stock, the
tinting and toning processes saw colour added or “superadded to the more dominant
form of reproduction, an extra sensual intensity”[12].
Rather than trying to capture the true colour of life, the purpose was to give
an effect and mood to the black and white film. Even in the Technicolor era,
where the use of filters and lighting effects were discouraged in order to
create realism, many argued that the Technicolor process should be used for
more symbolic and inspirational purposes.
Lighting the Emotions:
Expressive Colour in Theatre
Cinema and theatre are intrinsically
linked historically. While theatre still exists today, it would be correct to
state that theatre was a precursor to cinema and that cinema is a natural
evolutionary step from live performances to recordings of performances. Both
early theatre and early cinema began using natural daylight as their lighting
source. Ancient Greek and Roman theatres were built in the open air to use
natural light. Similarly early cinematic studios were built with glass ceilings
to allow natural daylight to illuminate the theatre-like stage with natural
light. And it is with theatre that the first use of coloured light for
entertainment and dramatic purposes began.
In order to discuss the evolution of
colour light effects, we must discuss the evolution of lighting technologies in
theatre for it is these innovations that determine the development of the
colour gels and filters used in cinema. As stated above, plays held in ancient Greece were
staged in large outdoor theatres, under the natural light of the sun. But more
than a simple use of light, the Greeks organised the plays to run at different
times of the day, in order to take advantage of the different types and shades
of light available at these different times. It is thus apparent that, whether
consciously or unconsciously, the ancients were aware of the power and
emotional connotations of colour of light, in the form of colour light
temperature, which changes throughout the day, offering bright blues in the
hours around midday and sumptuous reds and oranges in the hours at dawn and
dusk (a characteristic used in film production as the “magic hour”). For
performances taking place after sunset, fires, torches and oil lamps were used
to illuminate the stage. These apparatus remained in place for centuries,
albeit with some alterations in the style.
 |
|
Fig. 1: A Traditional Bozze
|
It was not until the Renaissance period when colour
lighting in theatre truly came into being; what Richard Pilbrow calls the
“cradle of stage lighting”[13];
in other words, the birthplace of lighting. In 1545, the Italian architect and
artist Sebastiano Serlio first advocated the use of coloured glass in front of
candles to project coloured light onto the stage. According to Pilbrow this
instrument, the bozze (Fig. 1[14])
was the first recorded stage lighting instrument. The bozze was, in essence, a
glass vessel in either convex or concave shape filled with oil or wick. For
coloured the light, it was filled with coloured liquids such as wine (red),
saffron (yellow) or ammonium chloride in copper vessels (blue)[15].
The effect of these coloured lights on the stage and costumes created a
spectacle for the audience. Pilbrow further states that:
“the
stage, glowing with multicoloured flickering light, shining with encrusted and
translucent scenery and costumes that shimmered with jewels, must have been an
astonish and lovely spectacle.”[16]
In 1565, playwright Leone di Sommi
wrote
“Four Dialogues on Scenic Representation” in
which the protagonists discussed mood and atmosphere. Through the conversation,
the stage lighting and atmosphere changes. When they discuss joy and happiness,
the stage is illuminated in “brilliant and glowing colors”[17],
while in tragedy the light is dimmed. These models of stage lighting were to
continue well into the 18th century.
It was in the Georgian era (1714-1830)
that a further development in the
creation of coloured light was founded; the use of coloured silk and glass.
These were placed in front of the oil lamps as primitive filters, casting
coloured light onto the stage and creating mood and atmosphere. One of the most
famous proponents of this was artist and stage designer P.J. De Loutherbourg (1740-1812) who pioneered the use of colour changing
silks on the side-lights to create mood at atmosphere in his productions.
Further lighting innovation came in 1803 in London’s Lyceum theatre with the use of
gaslight. However it was not until 1817 that the theatre was refitted to be
entirely lit by this new apparatus. Other theatres soon followed and the bright
light of gaslight quickly became an industry standard.
The Victorian era (1837 – 1901) led
to further developments in lighting, most significant of which the introduction
of limelight. Though invented in 1826, it was first tested in 1837, the
beginning of the Victorian age, in London’s
Covent Garden. Limelight used a block of
quicklime heated by a flame of oxygen and hydrogen. It provided an intense and
extremely bright light that was used as a follow spotlight in theatre. Again
the Lyceum theatre was an innovator in the development of lighting techniques
in adding colour to the limelight, using mediums of red, two colours of amber
and four shades of blue to alter the intense limelight and add further
atmosphere to the stage. Michael Booth[18]
describes the light as “beautiful” in the effects it could achieve. In these
situations, the coloured light was used to create atmosphere, not only
mimicking the beauty of the sunsets but also to add depth an emotion to the
dramatic and romantic scenes through the use of red filters.
Complimenting the limelight was the
“colored fire” which also originated in the 19th century. These
fires added further dramatic effect through the flickering of the coloured
light in the wings. They were created through the mixing of various
ingredients; strontium nitrate, sulphur, copper oxide, mercury sulphide etc.
The chemicals were mixed to the desired colour and placed in iron boxes
concealed in the wings. At the appropriate times they were lit to bathe the
stage in eerie coloured fire. As with previous uses of colour light, these
lighting effects were coded for specific dramatic needs. Green and blue fires
were used for the appearance of ghosts and spirits, possibly due to the
identification of those colours with nature and death, while red was used for
villains and demons. Other colours, according to Booth, were used for “prettier
and less supernatural effects”[19].
Even with the advent of electrical lamps in 1881, experiments in colour
lighting techniques were still taking place. The lamps themselves were dipped
in coloured lacquer to tint the light, however due to the extreme heat created
by these lamps, the lacquer would fade quickly. To avoid this, coloured
gelatine sheets were used to colour the light.
In the late 19th century,
more abstract experiments with coloured light took place. Along with Adolphe
Appia and Gordon Craig, one of the pioneers of coloured light was the dancer
Loie Fuller, who used it as an integral part of her dances. Shafts of light
were projected vertically upwards from beneath the stage. The performers danced
and twirled within these shafts of light, their flowing clothes acting as a
screen for the light. The colour of the light was continuously changing giving
the effect that the dancers were like “a figure enshrouded in a silent and
iridescent column of flame”. Furthermore, her use of colour acted as a
precursor to colour cinema and, according to Gunning “Fuller’s color symphonies
provided cinema with its first impulses towards color”[20].
This is most evident in the filming of, arguably, her most famous dance; The
Serpentine Dance. In 1894 Edison recorded this
dance using his Kinetoscope, tinting the entire film strip in order to match
the colour aesthetics of the live show, while the Lumière brothers recorded the
dance in 1896 using hand painting to colour the slides to mimic the colourful
spectacle. The Lumière’s film has been cited as an example of one of the
earliest experiments in the colour photography in cinema. On the contrary, I
believe that, rather than trying to achieve a total realism in colouring the
scene, the Lumières are in fact attempting to recreate the effect of colour
light. If you examine the film closely
(Fig. 2), the background is dark and thus requires no colour, while the
foreground is similarly bare with only a pale colouring used; the only portion of the film that is actually
coloured is the dancer. It is the effect of the light on the clothes that is
the spectacle for the audience and in colouring the film they are attempting to
depict the similar attraction; the attraction of coloured light
 |
|
Fig 2: Stills from The Serpentine Dance (1896)
|
The theatre can be seen as the
starting point for the colour revolution. Throughout history the theatre has
shown how colour light can be used to create emotional and expressionistic
impact on the spectator. It is from theatre that much of the emotional coding
of colour began and the development of light effects in theatre continued into
cinema. Indeed, as Eskilson states, by the early 20th century,
theatre offered “access to a magical realm of peace and harmony, a mystical
utopia of colored light”[21].
Colouring
the Projected Image: Expressive Colour in Cinema
Within the history of cinema as
whole, the magic lantern and phantasmagorias of the 19th century
represent a significant turning point in the move towards the cinematic
experience. Similarly they represent a link between theatrics and cinema. The
phantasmagorias were unique in terms of each performance being different from
the preceding. Charles Musser[22]
sees the phantasmagoria as having “much in common with a stage performance”.
While lighting plays an important part in the effects used in the
phantasmagoria, it is in a fellow 19th century moving picture show
that colour lighting and lighting effects are used to a truly significant
degree; the diorama. Built in Paris
in 1822 by Louis-Jacques-Mandé Daguerre, the Diorama was designed to incorporate
the lighting effects that Daguerre himself had pioneered as a painter for
theatrical productions. According to Paul Clee[23],
the window and skylights of the room were fitted with screens and shutters so
that the light could be regulated. Furthermore filters were used on the lights
(both the external daylight and the internal oil lamps) to alter the colour of
the light and create magnificent effects on the screens. The Diorama, as well
as the phantasmagoria and magic lantern shows, represents the shift in the
knowledge and technologies founded within theatre to the precursors of cinema
and thus into the apparatus of modern cinema.
As
stated earlier, the dances of Loie Fuller provided an impetus for early
filmmakers to experiment with colour. Within early cinema, there appears to be
two disparate paradigms for the use of colour; each with its own separate, yet
interrelated chronology. According to Gunning there are two distinct
traditions: photographic real colour and non-indexical symbolic colour. Gunning
suggests that while silent cinema saw attempts to achieve the photographic
realistic colour of Bazin’s “Total Cinema”; it was, in fact the more arbitrary
colour applications of tinting and toning that was most prevalent in the silent
era.
Before
delving into the tinting of black and white film, it must be said that the use
of colour light and colour filters in early cinema was not limited to the
various hand painting and dying processes. In the early orthochromatic film
stocks , the silver halide grains were excessively sensitive to colours in the
blue spectrum. Furthermore, the emulsions are sensitive to the invisible
ultra-violet radiation. Both these factors can cause problems when shooting
black and white. Eskilson gives the example of the sky; when photographed
without a filter it will be washed out, the “differentiation between the blue
and any white clouds being washed out”. It was therefore necessary to use red,
orange and yellow filters, even in early cinema, to lighten these colours at
the expense of the colours in the blue spectrum, thus resolving the problem and
allow a truer representation of what is being filmed.
Among
the various additive colour processes available in the early years of cinema,
toning was the most popular. The use of tinting began as early as the 1890’s.
On 23rd April
1896, New York’s
Koster and Bial Music Hall saw the debut of the
Vitascope, an early film projector. Two of the films shown that night were
coloured using the same tinting process as the stereopticon. Tinting, as
defined by the Society of Motion Picture Engineers[24]
involved “immersing the film in a solution of dye which colors the gelatine,
causing the whole picture to have a uniform veil of colour on the screen”. It
is this uniformity that differentiates the tinting process from the other
experiments in realistic colour, and links it more to the uniformity of colour
light used for symbolic purposes in theatre; after all, the tinted film
illuminated by the projector is a direct successor to the gelatin filter placed
over a stage light. In fact, W.D. Griffith, in the exhibition of his 1919 film Broken Blossoms, used a technique that
Edward Branigan called “closer to theatre than to either photography or
painting”[25]; he
used a separate “Chinese Blue” coloured spotlight during the projection to
augment the tinted film, a technique one reviewer called “revolutionary”.
Higgins
states that by 1914, a standardized colour coding of the tinted colours was in
place. Following on from the coding of the colour lights in theatre, blue
signified night scenes, red indicated fire and passion while amber indicated
lamplight. It is interesting to note that both the blue and amber colours are
further representatives of the colour temperature of both daylight (6500°
Kelvin) and interior lights (1850°-3300° K). A famous example of the use of
tinting processes as signifiers is F. W. Murnau
film Nosferatu (1922).
The images in Fig. 3 illustrate the range of colour tinting effects used in the
film. The top image, tinted blue, takes place at night, while the amber
represents interior shots. The final shot, tinted magenta, represents not only
the dawn, but the dramatic and emotional conclusion of the film. These tinted
scenes bare little resemblance to true photographic realism; “a long way from a
literal representation of the world”[26],
however the similarities between tinting and stage light are most apparent in
the last shot; it could easily be a photograph from a stage play, lit with a
magenta gel, as it could be a tinted black and white film. In fact, Richard
Maltby suggests that the prevalence of tinted film in early cinema caused
colour to be associated “with mood rather than naturalism”[27],
further illustrating the role of expressive colour light in the history of
cinema.
 |
|
Fig. 3: Tinted stills from Nosferatu (1922)
|
The tinting process was relatively
inexpensive compared to other processes and thus became, during the silent era,
“an absolute standard”[28].
According to the Society of Motion Picture Engineers[29]
by 1920, 80-90% of films were tinted. Tinting and toning were often used
together for further effects. King Vidor’s 1921 film The Sky Pilot used both processes, but he used it as a
significant part of the mise-en-scène.
Similar to Appia’s analogy of light and music, King Vidor wanted to “score” the
film for colour. Using the various tinting
colours, from soft violets for early morning
scenes and yellows for the scenes after sunrise, Vidor gave emotional cues for
the audience. Vidor himself states that he used varying colour shades of green
and pink as signifiers for emotions; “The heights of joy are enhanced with a
delicate pink glow, while the depths of grief call for a ghastly gray green
tone”[30].
1921 was also the year when Eastman
Kodak created pre-tinted film stock. The effect was achieved not by dying the
individual prints, but by causing a chemical reaction in the metallic salts,
causing the silver grains to become silver ferrocyanide. The made tinted films
easier to create and cemented its place as the standard colour reproduction
process. However with the arrival of sound film temporarily put a halt to the
continuing success of tinting. The original tinting process of chemical baths
interfered with the sound track and thus many filmmakers chose the new
technology of sound over film tinting. Maltby suggests that “the aesthetic
regime of sound movies discouraged the symbolic use of color tints.”[31] This
can be seen as a move towards more realistic, “total cinema”. It was not until
1929 when Eastman Kodak introduced Sonochrome; a pre-tinted film stock that did
not interfere with the soundtrack. Sonochrome was available in 16 tinted bases,
allowing the full use of colour as emotional symbolism while also giving the
realism of sound.
Colour tinting continued until the
1950’s, but it was the revolution of Technicolor in the late 1920’s that truly
marked the end of the use of colour for symbolic purposes and ushered in
realistic colour. With the three colour process, Technicolor was able to
achieve the photographic realism that was initiated by such innovations as
Kinemacolor. In order to preserve this realism, the Technicolor Motion Picture
Corporation employed colour consultants to work on set, making sure that the
colour reproduction accurately matched skin tones and “forcibly discouraging
the use of filters or unconventional effects.”[32]. That
being said, many in the industry saw Technicolor as an opportunity to truly use
colour for symbolic and expressionistic effects. Lansing C. Holden, colour designer on the
1939 version of A Star is Born
suggested that colour should be used “like music, to heighten the emotional
impact of a scene.”[33]
Even Natalie Kalmus, chief consultant in Technicolor accepted that the new
found realism in motion pictures needed to be guided “into the realms of art.”[34].
As Maltby suggests, this meant using colour to match the mood of the scene and,
was a “more elaborate version of the symbolic use of color in tinting silent
movies”[35].
But even within the realm of realism,
there are some examples of the use of coloured like for emotionally symbolic
purposes. The 1934 short film La
Cucaracha was filmed in Technicolor but used expressive lighting to
provide emotional impact. Colour designer Robert Edmond Jones used “mood
lights” and “colored figure illumination” to underscore the characters emotions.
In once scene (Fig. 4), the character of Chatita is bathed in blue light,
signifying her sadness. Furthermore, the character of Martinez is lit with a red filter, signifying
his anger. Even within the realism of the Technicolor era, filmmakers were
still able to use coloured light to illustrate emotional effect.
 |
|
Fig. 4: Chatita in blue light
|
 |
|
Fig. 5: Martinez
in Red Light
|
Conclusion
Throughout this paper I have attempted
to illustrate the pivotal and overlooked importance that colour light has played
in the history of cinema. There is a basic misperception of coloured light
being the same as colour and thus neither aspect can truly be discussed
correctly.
In 1810, Johann Wolfgang von Goethe
published his book “Theory of Colours”. It became an important text in the
world of art for its discussion of the effects of colour. However I believe
that Goethe, in his scientific experiments, overlooked the importance of colour
light. He described looking at a landscape through yellow glass, with the
effect that “the eye is gladdened, the heart expanded,” while a blue glass was
“gloomy and melancholy”[36].While
this is an example of the power of colour to effect the viewer, more
importantly, it is an example of the power of coloured light; after all it was
not a yellow clothe he was looking at, but objects through the yellow light
created by the glass. This is an oft overlooked factor in the discussion of
colour. Colour light has more effect on us than simple blocks of colour; it
changes how our perception. If I am in a white room with a pure white light, I
see white. But if the light is blue, the white room (and everything in it)
changes to hues and tones of blue, altering my perception.
As stated in the introduction, there
are a number of aspects of coloured light that I could not, for reasons of
certain limitations, discuss in my paper, although they play an important role
in the dialogue. Firstly when looking at colour light we must also look at
colour temperature, which plays a substantial part in the filmic process.
Colour temperature defines what film stock and filters to use and thus,
ultimately defining the end result of filming. However there are problems in
discussing this, as any thesis would ultimately fall into the realm of the
evolution of film stock. Another aspect that deserves recognition in this
discourse is the medical effects of both colour light and colour temperature.
Just as Goethe experimented in the 19th century, further research
has taken place into how the colour temperature and colour of the lighting in a
room can affect our emotional responses.
Furthermore, within this paper I have
tried to present a cohesive chronology of the use of coloured light for
symbolic effects. From Renaissance theatre to the Technicolor dreamscape, the
use of colours in light to effect our emotions have been proven time and time
again. However, from the advent of Technicolor, filmic examples appear to be
more of an exception, while theatre lighting has evolved dramatically. Maltby[37]
suggests that although the use of colour for symbolic purposes is still
apparent in cinema, but that, colour, for the most part, has been “normalized
by audience expectations”; that is, the audience now expects realistic, natural
colour shots, and so filmmakers concede. Furthermore any “evident restrictions
or distortions of a movies color range(..) remains relatively rare”. For the
most part, it appears that the symbolic use of colour is a thing of the past.
There are only a few rare examples of
symbolic colour effects in modern cinema, one of which is Steven Soderbergh’s
Oscar winning film Traffic (2000).
The film is set around three interwoven storylines. To distinguish between the
different stories in the different settings, colour effects were used; altering
the colour of light using filters. According to Soderbergh, for the East Coast
scenes, he used Tungsten film with no filter to create a “monochrome blue feel”[38](Fig.
6); akin to the tinted blue films of early cinema, while in the scenes set in
Mexico, tobacco filters were used to create a brown hue (Fig. 7). The varying
colours were used to connect the audience with the scene through coloured light
and allow them to return to a scenario following a cut from a different
location. This appears to be a more stylised and intellectual use of colour
lighting effects and was widely praised by critics and audiences. Perhaps
audiences have been so normalized by natural colour that, once again, coloured, symbolic light can become a spectacle.
 |
| Fig. 6 |
 |
| Fig. 7 |
[1] Adolphe Appia quoted in Eskilson 2002,
p.1
[2] Millerson 1991, p.15
[4] Guerin, Ibid.
[5] Millerson 2005, p.41
[6] 2007, p.8
[7] Quoted in Yumibe 2007, p.1
[8] 1996
[9] 2007, p.1
[10] 1985
p.129
[11] Although I will use the English(U.K)
spelling of “colour” throughout this article, when quoting I will use the
English (U.S.) spelling if used in the referenced article.
[12] Gunning
1996 p.21
[13] 1997 p.167
[14] Image from Pilbrow 1997, p.168
[15] Wilson and Goldfarb, 1983
[16] 1997 p. 168
[17] Ibid.
[18] 1991,
p.87
[19] Ibid. p.90
[20] 2006, p.34
[21] 2002, p.2
[22] In Musser et. al, 2002, p.24
[23] 2005,
p.60
[24] quoted in Koszarski,
1994, p.127
[25] 1994, p.129
[26] Buscombe 1985, p.88
[27] 2003, p.248
[28] Higgins 2007, p.3
[29] quoted in Koszarski,1994,
p.127
[30] quoted in Koszarski,1994,
p.127
[31] 2003, p.248
[32] Ibid.
[33] Quoted in Maltby, 2003, p.249
[34] Ibid.
[35] Maltby, 2003, p.249
[36] 2006.
p. 307
[37] 2003, p.250
[38] Hope, 2001
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